Courses offered by the School of Forestry & Environmental Studies are described below. The letters “a” and “b” following the course numbers indicate fall- and spring-term courses respectively. Bracketed courses will not be offered during the academic year.

Project courses embrace individually assigned advanced field or laboratory work, or literature review, on topics of special interest to the student; credits and hours for these projects are determined for each student in consultation with the instructor.

Courses throughout the University are generally open to students enrolled in the School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, subject to limitations on class size and requirements for prerequisites. Courses numbered 500 and above are graduate courses.

The sequence of numbers does not reflect level of advancement.

Economics

F&ES 80110b Financial Markets and the Environment
F&ES 84002a Economics of Natural Resource Management (734a)
F&ES 80103b Valuing the Environment (737b)
F&ES 84004a The Economics of Sustainable Development (842a)
F&ES 80105a The Economics of the Climate Issue (843a)
[F&ES 80107b] Economics of Water Quality and Water Scarcity (863b)
F&ES D0163a Doctoral Seminar in Environmental Economics

Environmental Policy

F&ES 80008b Seminar on Leadership in Natural Resources and the Environment (503b)
F&ES 85009b Seminar on Forest Certification (521b)
F&ES 85011a Environmental Policy Analysis for an Unpredictable World (594a)
[F&ES 85012b] Science and Politics of Environmental Regulation (725b)
F&ES 85013a Environmental Politics and Policy (728a)
[F&ES 85014a] Foundations of Environmental Policy and Politics (731a)
F&ES 80015b Natural Resource Policy Practicum (739b)
F&ES 80116b Emerging Markets for Ecosystem Services (763b)
[F&ES 80017b] Public-Private Partnerships: Lessons from the Water Sector (766b)
F&ES 80018b Seminar on Land Use Planning
F&ES 80019a Entrepreneurial Business Planning
F&ES 80021b International Organizations and Conferences (772b)
F&ES 80022a,b Environmental Diplomacy Practicum (773a,b)
F&ES 85023a Markets, Social and Environmental Certification, and Corporate Accountability (796a)
F&ES 86024b Transportation and Urban Land Use Planning: Shaping the Twenty-First-Century City (797b)
F&ES 86025a Energy Systems Analysis (801a)
F&ES 83026a Technology, Society, and the Environment (802a)
F&ES 80027b Strategies for Land Conservation (846b)
F&ES 80028b Understanding Environmental Campaigns: Strategies and Tactics (847b)
F&ES 80029a Local Environmental Law and Land Use Practices (851b)
F&ES 85030a Private Investment and the Environment (853a)
F&ES 80032a History of the Environment and Ecological Science (858a)
F&ES 85033a Environmental Law and Policy (861a)
F&ES 80034a,b Environmental Protection Clinic (864a,b)
F&ES 85035b International Environmental Law and Policy (870a)
F&ES 85036b Foundations of Natural Resource Policy and Management (891b)
F&ES 83037b Large-Scale Conservation: Integrating Science, Management, and Policy (909b)
F&ES 80041b Comparative Environmental Law in Global Legal Systems (848b)
F&ES 85068b International Environmental Policy and Governance

Economics

F&ES 80110b/MGT 686, Financial Markets and the Environment. 3–4 credits. This seminar explores methods by which financial markets incorporate environmental costs, risks, liabilities, and opportunities into financial valuations. Students develop their own valuation exercises and critique methodologies used by financial analysts and in equity, debt, banking, and insurance markets. Students in the seminar explore the role of information availability and asymmetries. The seminar emphasizes applications of financial analytical approaches and provides students with opportunities to question practitioners. Assignments are problem-based and include teamwork. Robert Repetto.

F&ES 84002a, Economics of Natural Resource Management. 3 credits. This course provides an introductory survey, from the perspective of economics, of issues regarding the use and management of natural resources. The course covers both conceptual and methodological topics and applications. The first part of the course is an introduction to the principles of natural resource economics. We develop the basic theory required to understand the economic concept of efficiency, as well as conditions under which markets can and cannot be expected to allocate resources efficiently. Next, we develop an understanding of environmental benefit valuation techniques. The remaining three-quarters of class sessions are devoted to applying these theoretical concepts and methods to questions of managing both nonrenewable resources (oil and minerals) and renewable resources (water, fisheries, forests, and species). This applied portion of the course also includes class sessions on the economics of land use change, as well as macroeconomic topics like economic growth, sustainability, and green accounting. Important themes in the course include the uses and limits of markets in natural resource management; measurement of the benefits of natural resource amenities like clean water and recreational public lands; economic and environmental implications of poorly defined property rights for resources like fisheries and groundwater; and economic definitions of sustainability. Sheila M. Olmstead.

F&ES 80103b, Valuing the Environment. 3 credits. This quantitative course demonstrates alternative methods used to value environmental services. The course covers valuing pollution, ecosystems, and other natural resources. The focus of the course is on determining the "shadow price" of nonmarket resources that have no prices but yet are considered valuable by society. Taught every other year. Three hours lecture. Robert Mendelsohn.

FES 84004a, The Economics of Sustainable Development. 3 credits. This course first critically explores the concept of sustainable development, examining ecological and economic interpretations of "sustainability" and various issues in the concept of economic "development." It then examines conditions for sustainability derived from neoclassical growth models, and methodologies and indicators used to measure progress toward sustainability. The course then studies important institutional, market and policy failures impeding progress toward sustainable development, along with measures that have been put in place to resolve these obstacles. In this section of the course students examine problems stemming from absent or insecure property rights and workable remedies. Students examine market failures and "externalities" from an economic perspective, including economically efficient pollution control, methods of valuing environmental damages, and the design of policy instruments to control environmental damages, including regulatory, tax, and trading approaches. This section of the course concludes by examining policy failures impeding sustainable development, such as perverse subsidies and rent-seeking behavior. The final section of the course examines issues related to "globalization," trade and the environment, and international investment. Case material for the course is drawn from the U.S. and developing countries and a wide range of resource and environmental issues. Robert Repetto.

FES 80105a, The Economics of the Climate Issue. 3 credits. This course explores economic issues involved in the formation of policies to deal with the problem of humanly induced climate change. After a brief review of the basic scientific issues, the course examines research into the economic impacts of climate change and economic approaches to deal with uncertainty regarding possible impacts. The course then examines economic research into the costs of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, with particular attention to such key determinants as backstop energy technologies, technological change, and carbon sequestration. Thereafter, the course critically examines efforts to apply benefit-cost analysis to the design of climate policies, including considerations of equity and discounting of future values. The next section of the course focuses on issues in the design of policies to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, particularly tax and trading approaches, including the mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. The final section of the course examines problems in devising international agreements that will be beneficial to all parties and hence voluntarily implemented. This section considers problems of "free-riding," issue linkage, and enforcement of international climate agreements. Robert Repetto.

[F&ES 80107b, Economics of Water Quality and Water Scarcity. 3 credits. This limited-enrollment seminar is a survey of selected issues in the economics of water resources management. The course is divided into two parts, the first focusing on water quality, and the second on water scarcity. Issues covered in the first part of the course may include: efficiency and cost-effectiveness of U.S. federal water quality regulations, including the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act; methods used by economists to value the benefits of water quality regulation, as well as specific applications of such methods; cost-effective approaches to water quality regulation, including effluent trading; and the current and potential role of economics in wetlands protection policies. In the second part of the course, we discuss issues such as: water allocation and water marketing; urban water demand and pricing; the economics of water conservation; and the trend of privatization of water supply. Specific topics subject to change each year. The seminar format requires substantial student input, and there is a heavy writing component. Class sessions include a mix of discussion of study questions related to assigned readings and/or formal cases, followed by student presentations on relevant topics. Prerequisite: F&ES 84001b, F&ES 84002a, or an equivalent microeconomics course. Sheila M. Olmstead.]

F&ES D0163a, Doctoral Seminar in Environmental Economics. 3 credits. This course critically examines a set of recent and also famous papers in environmental and resource economics. The purpose of each paper, its method, results, and conclusions are all discussed. The course is intended to prepare students for a career in economic research. Robert Mendelsohn.

Environmental Policy

F&ES 80008b, Seminar on Leadership in Natural Resources and the Environment. 3 credits. This seminar explores the qualities, characteristics, and behaviors of leaders in the fields of natural resources, science, and management. Through lectures, guest speakers, and individual and team projects, students analyze the attributes of leadership in individuals and organizations. They examine leaders and organizations and develop skills and techniques for leading and for assessing various organizations' leadership strengths and weaknesses. The class travels to Washington, D.C. and meets with leaders in the policy, environmental, industry, and information segments. Through this experience, students have the opportunity to assess their own leadership capabilities and identify means to improve them. Chadwick D. Oliver.

F&ES 85009b, Seminar on Forest Certification. 3 credits. This seminar-style course teaches students the basics of forest certification systems and their differences, their histories, and the theory behind certification as a tool for conservation. Students learn from the instructors as well as expert guest lecturers about the evolution, structure, and application of forest certification systems globally. The seminar explores case studies comparing both forest certification politics in different jurisdictions/countries, as well as on actual certified forests. Benjamin Cashore.

F&ES 85011a, Environmental Policy Analysis for an Unpredictable World. 3 credits. This course explores theories of domestic and international environmental policy making in order to understand better the processes through which policy change (and stability) occurs. The course examines traditional domestic and international public policy-making processes, and emerging institutions that seek to privatize environmental governance and restructure power relations among organized interests. The course examines these questions from comparative and international perspectives. Special attention is placed on the international-domestic nexus, and the effects of economic globalization and international governance on domestic policy change. Benjamin Cashore.

[F&ES 85012b, Science and Politics of Environmental Regulation. 3 credits. This course explores the interplay among science, values, and power within diverse environmental decision contexts. Scientific uncertainty is examined as the focus of political conflict over appropriate levels of regulation. Regulation is used in its broadest sense, i.e., attempts to control human uses of natural systems. The course focuses on the underlying behavior of key actors as a foundation for evaluating the historical effectiveness of diverse regulatory regimes, domestic and international. The course includes case studies of many toxic substance and land use issues. Three-hour seminar. John P. Wargo.]

F&ES 85013a, Environmental Politics and Policy. 3 credits. This course provides an overview of environmental politics and policy. The relations among science, politics, and law are taught via case histories that include pesticides, parks and protected area management, endangered species, radionuclides, facility siting, air pollution, drinking water quality, food safety, hazardous site restoration, and vector-borne disease. The concepts of authority, democracy, risk, secrecy, security, equity, and justice guide the examination of political debate. In each case history, we explore the effectiveness of law and regulation. John P. Wargo.

[F&ES 85014a, Foundations of Environmental Policy and Politics. 3 credits. This course examines theories of policy making and politics, applied to problems of environmental management. Theories of property rights, risk assessment, and decision making are explored and applied to problems in managing land use, air quality, water quality, food safety, hazardous site restoration, and vector-borne disease. Students take a final exam and prepare a research paper or project as the primary course requirements. Two lectures per week, one discussion section. John P. Wargo.]

F&ES 80015b, Natural Resource Policy Practicum. 3 credits. This practicum provides opportunities for students to participate in the analysis and development of current issues/policies affecting natural resources in the United States. Students are organized into teams and assigned a number of current policy issues for analysis and discussion. The identified issues originate from discussions with staff of national environmental organizations, Congressional offices, and federal natural resource agencies that serve as "clients" for the purposes of this practicum. Students are required to communicate directly with the organizations and individuals seeking policy analysis assistance, to conduct research and interdisciplinary analysis of the subject, to prepare a report and recommendations for the identified client, and to brief the client on the product of their analysis. Each team is responsible for a minimum of three policy analysis projects during the term. Following an initial organizational meeting, student teams meet with the instructor once a week to provide updates on project. James R. Lyons.

F&ES 80116b, Emerging Markets for Ecosystem Services. 3 credits. The modern economy consumes many ecosystem services without paying for their production: forested areas protect water resources; plants sequester carbon; intact ecosystems protect biodiversity and its associated services (potential pharmaceuticals, existence value, etc.). In response, a growing number of experiments are under way to make consumers of eco-system services pay the producers of the services, thus creating market incentives to sustain intact, biologically diverse areas. However, these experiments are in their infancy and raise a host of ethical, scientific, commercial, and policy questions. The purposes of this seminar are: (1) to understand these opportunities and their limits, by examining current scientific, commercial, and policy knowledge relevant to building markets for ecosystem services; and (2) to apply the lessons learned to actual properties, by analyzing the scientific, business, and policy aspects of land managers' decisions whether to manage their land to supply these emerging markets. Prerequisites: course work or experience in at least one of the following: silviculture, hydrology, business analysis/planning, or policy/law. Enrollment limited to twelve. Taught alternate years. Bradford S. Gentry, Mark Ashton, and guest lecturers.

[F&ES 80017b, Public-Private Partnerships: Lessons from the Water Sector. 3 credits. Governments around the world are finding that they cannot meet pressing environmental problems alone. Nor can they compel the private sector to take all the necessary actions. Increasingly, they are looking to partnerships with businesses, NGOs, and communities as a tool for improving environmental performance in many different sectors and contexts. Many of these partnerships are in the urban water sector. Private involvement in water is particularly controversial, however, raising fundamental issues about the roles of governments, businesses, and civil society in meeting basic human and environmental needs. In collaboration with the U.N. Development Program and universities around the world, this seminar explores the fundamentals of partnerships as a policy tool, as well as the opportunities and limits of its application in the urban water sector. Limited enrollment. Taught alternate years. Bradford S. Gentry.]

F&ES 80018b, Seminar on Land Use Planning. 1 credit. This course showcases key elements of the field of planning with particular attention to land use planning. Over a series of ten two-hour sessions it provides a broad overview of current planning practice and theory with an emphasis on practice. It highlights a range of perspectives on urban, suburban, exurban, rural issues and their interconnections and local, regional, and national approaches to planning. It exposes students to the kinds of people who get involved in planning and the career or civic platforms from which they approach it. It examines what happens in the absence of good planning and policy as well as current wisdom on best practices, policies, and successful outcomes. Some attention is also given to the thinking of skeptics about planning and opponents of land use regulation. There is a defined set of readings each week and a mix of outside speakers and student-led sessions. Because this is a one-credit course, there are no written or graded assignments. As such, all students are expected to complete all of the required readings in order to receive credit. Hooper Brooks, Gordon Geballe.

F&ES 80019a/MGT 618, Entrepreneurial Business Planning. 3 credits. Entrepreneurship is all about starting and running one's own business. In order to focus thinking and to help assemble the needed people and financial resources, many entrepreneurs write a business plan for their new venture. One of the best ways to learn how to write a business plan is to learn by doing—a real plan for a real new venture. The work is hands-on, learn-by-doing in nature. Entrepreneurs should be flexible thinkers and highly motivated, with a large capacity for work. They must be persistent and able to thrive in an unstructured environment. Entrepreneurs should be confident self-starters with the ability to take the initiative, overcome obstacles, make things happen, and get things done. This course is for three teams of five students each, who want to write a business plan for their own real new startup company. Students enter their plans in the Y50K Business Plan Contest sponsored by the Yale Entrepreneurial Society. The scope of the work includes doing in-depth market, product, and competitor research; creating a strategy for a sustainable business; and writing and presenting a professional-quality plan (including a financial model and deal structure). Enrollment limited to twenty-five, by permission of the instructor. David Cromwell.

F&ES 80021b, International Organizations and Conferences. 3 credits. This course, taught in the fall or spring term, focuses on an international conference or symposium and the organization that sponsors the event. Both theoretical and clinical approaches are used. The course studies the mission of the organization and the role of the conference. Students prepare individual and group papers suitable for presentation at the conference. Every attempt is made to have the students participate in the conference, even if it occurs in the next semester, but attendance is not guaranteed. The class has studied and participated in the 5th World Parks Congress, Durban, South Africa 2003, the World Conservation Congress, Bangkok, Thailand 2004, and the UNEP Council Meeting, Nairobi, Kenya 2005. This course is co-taught with an advanced doctoral student or visiting faculty member who brings knowledge of the specific organization and subject matter being studied. Gordon T. Geballe.

F&ES 80022a,b, Environmental Diplomacy Practicum. 6 credits (3 per term). This yearlong course is designed for students who are interested in experiential learning of international negotiations on issues of the environment and sustainable development through various intergovernmental bodies at the United Nations. Students participatein weekly seminars to acquire knowledge of the United Nations system and of the functions of the relevant institutions involved in environmental negotiations and decision making, and to learn the major substantive and procedural issues raised in multilateral negotiations about forestry, marine environment, fisheries, renewable resources, and the atmosphere. They also observe intergovernmental meetings and prepare research papers on selected topics. In addition, based on their qualifications and by special arrangement with country and observer missions, students are also assigned to work as interns with missions in New York; each student is expected to devote 12-15 hours per week to mission assignments. Their work may include research, drafting of papers, attending meetings, and developing specific projects on topics determined by the mission concerned. Students are expected to work in teams of three or four composed of law, forestry, and environment students selected from Pace Law School and F&ES. They should work closely with Professor Lee regarding their assignments with the missions and are required to make progress reports for purpose of supervision. Students' performance is evaluated on the basis of their participation in the weekly seminars, progress report, and the submission in May of a substantial research paper or project on a topic agreed upon by Professor Lee. Enrollment requires application, interview, and approval of instructors. Roy S. Lee, Nicholas Robinson, Gordon T. Geballe.

F&ES 85023a, Markets, Social and Environmental Certification, and Corporate Accountability. 1, 2, 0r 3 credits. This course explores the changing expectations, tools, and impacts of corporate social and environmental accountability in the twenty-first century. Building from case studies of many dimensions of "corporate social responsibility" in the twentieth century, the course reviews the literature on all levels of "social and environmental risk" faced by companies in their markets, including costs of finance, insurance, and reputational protection. It reviews the emergence of "certification systems" for encouraging and rewarding the highest level of corporate social and environmental accountability, drawing examples from global forestry, ecotourism, agricultural commodity trade, mining, and finance. It explores the nature and effectiveness of "markets campaigns" as a tool for promoting corporate environmental accountability. The course features guest speakers from companies that have embraced the new mechanisms for corporate accountability and those that have resisted them, from NGOs that have promoted them, and academic experts who have analyzed them. Michael Conroy, Benjamin Cashore.

F&ES 86024b, Transportation and Urban Land Use Planning: Shaping the Twenty-First-Century City. 3 credits. The focus of this course is on the environmental impacts of alternative transportation and urban land use policies, taught from a policy maker's perspective. It begins with a historical overview, examining the profound changes in the structure of cities following the advent of the automobile. The course then focuses on present and future environmental impacts—air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, urban sprawl—resulting from the exponential growth in motor vehicles, particularly in developing country cities, and examines alternative scenarios for mitigating these impacts. Additional topics include the role of public transit in the United States and the differing approaches to transportation and land use planning in various European cities; in-depth case studies of the success stories in urban transit in the developing world (e.g., Bogotá and Curitiba); and the range of options for transporting the two billion new urban inhabitants to be added to the world's cities in the next quarter-century. The course also examines policies to create compact, regional cities through the integration of transportation and land use planning and focuses on next and future steps, including congestion costs and congestion pricing, new technologies, and so forth. There is a field trip for about fifteen students to Shanghai during spring break. Ellen Brennan-Galvin.

F&ES 86025a, Energy Systems Analysis. 3 credits. This lecture course offers a systems analysis approach to describe and explain the basics of energy systems, including all forms of energy (fossil and renewable), all sectors/activities of energy production/conversion, and all end-uses, irrespective of the form of market transaction (commercial or noncommercial) or form of technology (traditional as well as novel advanced concepts) deployed. Students gain a comprehensive theoretical and empirical knowledge base from which to analyze energy-environmental issues as well as to participate effectively in policy debates. Special attention is given to introducing students to formal methods used to analyze energy systems or individual energy projects and also to discuss traditionally less-researched elements of energy systems (energy use in developing countries; energy densities and urban energy use; income, gender, and lifestyle differences in energy end-use patterns) in addition to currently dominant energy issues such as climate change. Active student participation is required, including presentations in class and completion of problem sets. Invited external speakers complement topics covered in class. Arnulf Grubler.

F&ES 83026a, Technology, Society, and the Environment. 3 credits. This seminar addresses technology's dual role as both source and remedy of global environmental change. The seminar first discusses conceptual and theoretical aspects of technological change from an interdisciplinary perspective including social science, history, economics, engineering, as well as management theory. Examples of technological change and its environmental impacts in agriculture, industries, and the service economy are addressed through case studies. Questions discussed include: Why are some technological innovations successful (e.g., cell phones) while others (e.g., fast breeder reactors) are not? What determines rates of change in the adoption of new technologies and how can these be accelerated? How many people can the earth feed? Is dematerialization actually occurring, and why? What are the implications of the Internet's digital North-South divide and what are strategies to overcome it? Active student participation is an essential ingredient of the seminar; students participate in seminar debates, perform case studies in home assignments, and also write a (short) final term paper on a mutually agreed-upon topic. Arnulf Grubler.

F&ES 80027b, Strategies for Land Conservation. 3 credits (or audit). This is a professional seminar on land conservation strategies and techniques, with particular emphasis on the legal, financial, and management tools used in the United States. The seminar is built around presentations by guest speakers from land conservation organizations. Speakers are assigned topics across the land conservation spectrum, from identification of target sites, through the acquisition process, to ongoing stewardship of the land after the deal is done. The tools used to protect land are discussed, including the basics of real estate law, conservation finance, and project management. Students are required to undertake a clinical project with a land conservation organization. Limited enrollment; preference to second-year students. Bradford S. Gentry.

F&ES 80028b, Understanding Environmental Campaigns: Strategies and Tactics. 1–3 credits. This is a course about the strategies and tactics used in successful environmental campaigns, taught from a practitioner's perspective. Though this topic is neither well documented nor regularly taught, there is a tactical toolkit that can be learned. Many environmental campaigners learn on the job. For those students interested in pursuing careers in environmental policy making and advocacy, this course is designed to be one that can jumpstart professional development. In a fashion comparable to the case study method offered in business schools, this course examines six cases, all from the past five years, and seeks to discern lessons for best practice. No single environmental campaign is the same, and strategies and tactics are always evolving, but there are several key lessons that can be drawn from such campaigns and there is also value in understanding current best practice even if it is constantly evolving. The six case topics examined in class are protecting Alaska's old-growth rainforests, conserving the Pine Barrens Watershed in Eastern Long Island, Home Depot's decision to preference sustainably managed forest products, the Give Swordfish A Break Campaign, the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Treaty, and regulatory reform. Resource people who have played leadership roles in each of these efforts join us for class. The class examines each case, synthesizes lessons learned, and seeks to formulate a practical understanding of key strategies and tactics used to effect positive outcomes. Michael Northrop.

F&ES 80029a, Local Environmental Law and Land Use Practices. 3 credits. This course explores the regulation by local governments of land uses in watershed areas and the effect of development on the natural environment. The course helps students understand, in a practical way, how the environment can be protected through effective regulation at the local level. It introduces students to federal, state, and regional laws and programs that affect watershed protection and to the laws that delegate to local governments primary responsibility for decision making in the land use field. Theories of federalism, regionalism, states' rights, and localism are studied. The history of the delegation of planning and land use authority to local governments is traced, leading to an examination of local land use practices particularly as they relate to controlling development in and around watershed areas. Course participants engage in empirical research working to identify, catalogue, and evaluate innovative local laws that successfully protect environmental functions and natural resources. Nearby watersheds are used as a context for the students' understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of local planning and regulation. Attention is paid, in detail, to how the development of the land adversely affects natural resources and how these impacts can be mitigated through local environmental regulations. Marjorie Shansky.

F&ES 85030a, Private Investment and the Environment. 3 credits. As environmental problems become harder to regulate and public funds available for environmental protection decline, more people are looking to private investment as a tool for improving environmental performance. This course explores the legal aspects of these initiatives, both opportunities and limits. It starts with an analysis of the goals of private investors— as a way to target efforts to change their decisions. It then moves to a review of the legal frameworks within which investors operate (property and tax law), as well as the legal tools that investors use to order their activities (contract law) and that governments use to address market failures (liability, regulation, information, and market mechanisms).It concludes by examining efforts to use combinations of these legal tools to expand private investment in environmentally superior goods, services, and operations. Bradford S. Gentry.

F&ES 80032a, History of the Environment and Ecological Science. 3 credits. In this seminar, students explore the tools of historical research and analysis and develop their narrative writing skills. After focusing on environmental history and how it furthers current problem solving, the seminar turns to the history of ecology and ecology's mixed influence on social and economic theory. Work centers on practical applications of historical research and analysis rather than the historical record, in the expectation that students will articulate their own narratives and gain increased power in problem analysis. History's analytic tools and perspectives offer social and natural scientists an excellent platform for establishing context and for making long-term projections. The ecological orientation afforded by historical analysis further leads to more successful and ethical policy making through its emphasis on context, on emergent processes, and on the central role of individuals in system dynamics. Arvid Nelson.

F&ES 85033a/LAW 20348, Environmental Law and Policy. 3 credits. Introduction to the legal requirements and policy underpinnings of the basic U.S. environmental laws, including the Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act, and various statutes governing waste, food safety, and toxic substances. This course examines and evaluates current approaches to pollution control and resource management as well as the "next generation" of regulatory strategies, including economic incentives and other market mechanisms, voluntary emissions reductions, regulatory negotiation, and public disclosure requirements. Mechanisms for addressing environmental issues at the local, regional, and global levels are also considered. Daniel C. Esty.

F&ES 80034a,b/LAW 20316/21321, Environmental Protection Clinic. 3 credits. A clinical program with weekly class sessions, alternating between seminars and project team meetings. The Environmental Protection Clinic is designed to introduce students to several major environmental policy questions and a variety of methods of advocating for environmental improvement. Students work in small interdisciplinary teams (with students from the Law School and occasionally other parts of the Yale community), ten to twelve hours per week, for a single client organization, such as a local, national, or international environmental organization, a community group, or a local, state, or national governmental entity. Students work on a specific project or series of projects that involve environmental law and policy issues, and that may include litigation, drafting legislation, organizing community action, developing media campaigns, participating in stakeholder working groups, and developing policy proposals. Students may propose projects and client organizations, subject to approval by the instructor. Dale Bryk.

F&ES 85035b/LAW 20326, International Environmental Law and Policy. 3 credits. An introduction to international environmental law and policy. After reviewing the rise of the international environmental agenda, the course concentrates on how societies have responded to global-scale environmental challenges, including deforestation, biodiversity loss, desertification, climate change, ozone depletion, toxic substances, and the loss of living marine resources. The principal response to date has been in the area of international environmental law and policy, where a major new field of law and diplomacy has opened up and new multilateral institutions have been created. This first attempt at global environmental governance is surveyed and critically evaluated. Alternatives are examined. The main text for the course is a law casebook, David Hunter, Durwood Zaelke, James Salzman, International Environmental Law and Policy (University Casebook Series, 2002). Nicholas Robinson.

F&ES 85036b, Foundations of Natural Resource Policy and Management. 3 credits. This research seminar focuses on the foundations of natural resource policy and management and is designed for students in any subfield of forestry and environmental studies, or in other disciplines. Comprehensive and integrated methods for thinking about and proposing solutions to problems in natural resource policy and management are explored. Students gain familiarity with the core methods of problem identification, clarification, and resolution and then apply these methods to particular issues in natural resource policy and management. Each student, alone or in collaboration, is responsible for researching a particular problem. Students circulate drafts of their papers to other seminar participants and lecture on and lead discussions of their topics in class sessions. Papers of sufficient quality may be collected in a volume for publication. The seminar is intended to complement, not duplicate, material in other courses in the School and at the University. Enrollment limited to sixteen; application required. Susan G. Clark.

F&ES 83037b, Large-Scale Conservation: Integrating Science, Management, and Policy. 3 or 6 credits. Environmental sustainability is an important societal goal, but figuring out how to achieve it at large scales has proven to be extremely challenging. Abundant trend data show that many species, ecosystems, and environmental systems are being overused, stressed, or degraded, thus undercutting the likelihood that we can reach sustainability. In addition, our institutions for science, management, and policy are not designed to address conservation at large scales. Over the last few decades there have been many management and policy initiatives to address large-scale conservation and resource use. Collectively, these efforts are a response to the growing awareness that many environmental problems can only be understood and addressed at large scales. All of these efforts are ambitious in scope. They are being undertaken or proposed at subnational, national, international, or planetary levels. Each approach emphasizes different goals and methods and engages different communities of practitioners, decision makers, and publics. This course (a mixed seminar and practicum) examines the conceptual and contextual basis for these efforts, compares and contrasts formulae being used (e.g., science, management, policy), explores themes (problem solving, change, organization, leadership, monitoring, learning), and surveys cases from three arenas (terrestrial, aquatic, and marine). The course takes a problem-oriented, contextual, and multi-method approach that offers students conceptual, practical, and professional benefits. It includes readings, lectures, discussions, workshops, exercises, oral presentations, guest speakers, individual and small-group assignments, and possibly a field trip. Extensive student participation is required throughout. Susan G. Clark.

F&ES 80041b Comparative Environmental Law in Global Legal Systems. 2 credits. This course examines environmental law in the various legal systems of the world—from the common and civil law traditions to socialist laws, customary law, and Islamic law. In particular, environmental law and case studies from a number of countries are examined, including Australia, Canada, China, Europe, New Zealand, the United States, Singapore, and the states of Southeast Asia. The objective is to understand the scope and evolution of national environmental law through the patterns of legislative, administrative, and judicial decision making in the various legal regimes. The systems of central/unitary governments are contrasted with those of federal systems. As corporations engage in the same manufacturing activities around the world, it is important that corporate managers and their legal advisers understand how these activities are regulated in the different legal systems. Additionally, as earth's natural systems are integrated throughout the biosphere, the effectiveness of one nation's environmental laws is complemented or undermined by the efficacy of another nation's comparable laws. Students are examined by a written paper that is a comparative study of some aspect of environmental law, involving at least two jurisdictions. Lye Lin Heng, Nicholas Robinson.

F&ES 85068b, International Environmental Policy and Governance. 3 credits. An examination of the emergence of global-scale environmental challenges, environmental diplomacy, and global environmental governance. Particular attention is given to the linked issues of climate change, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and desertification, and to the interplay of science and politics in framing policy responses to these issues. Permission of instructor not required. Benjamin Cashore.